0
July 1959, Vol 1, No. 1 >
Article | July 1959

Some Neurophysiologic Aspects of Depressed States: Title and subTitle BreakAn Electromyographic Study

GEORGE B. WHATMORE, M.D., Ph.D.; RICHARD M. ELLIS, JR., B.S.
[+] Author Affiliations

Submitted for publication Aug. 28, 1958.

This study was conducted at Eastern State Hospital, Medical Lake, Wash.


Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1959;1(1):70-80. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1959.03590010086010
Text Size: A A A
Published online
Article
References
Comments

The neurophysiologist has become interested in exploring the possibility that functional disorders may be basically a disturbance in the interaction of neurons, particularly the neurons of that complex network composing the brain. These neurons need not be structurally abnormal. Instead, they can be normal neurons that have learned to fire off in spatiotemporal patterns detrimental to the organism. Neurons do affect each other, and there are indications that activity within the motor portion of the nervous system can have pronounced effects on activity elsewhere in the nervous system (Refs. 2, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41, 50, 51, 56, 66, 67). On the basis of such studies, as well as from other findings, numerous investigators have come to believe that motor activity is more than just an end-product of psychic activity (Refs. 3, 5, 8, 9, 14, 21, 29,

REFERENCES

1 +
Allers, R., and Scheminzky, F.:  Über Aktionssträme der Muskeln bei motorischen Vorstellungen und verwandten Vorgängen , Arch. Physiol. 212:169, 1926;.
2 +
Barlow, W.:  Anxiety and Muscle Tension , in Modern Trends in Psychosomatic Medicine , edited by Desmond O’Neill, New York, Paul B. Hoeber, Inc. (medical book department of Harper & Brothers), 1955;.
3 +
Bender, L.: Psychopathology of Children with Organic Brain Disorders , Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1956;.
4 +
Bremer, F.:  The Neurophysiological Problem of Sleep , in Brain Mechanisms and Consciousness: A Symposium , Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences, edited by J. F. Delafresnaye, Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1954;.
5 +
Bull, N.: The Attitude Theory of Emotion , Monograph No. 81, New York, Nervous & Mental Disease Monographs, 1951;.
6 +
Cobb, S.:  On the Nature and Locus of Mind , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 67:172, 1952;.
7 +
Dement, W.:  Dream Recall and Eye Movements During Sleep in Schizophrenics and Normals , J. Nerv. & Ment. Dis. 122:263, 1955;.
8 +
Dixon, H. H.; Dickel, H. A.; Coen, R. A., and Haugen, G. B.:  Tension States: Summary of Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment , West. J. Surg. 58:667, 1950;.
9 +
Dixon, H. H.; Dickel, H. A.; Shanklin, J. G.; Peterson, R. D., and West, E. S.:  Therapy in Anxiety States and Anxiety Complicated by Depression , West. J. Surg. 62:338, 1954;.
10 +
Dixon, H. H.; Peterson, R. D.; Dickel, H. A.; Jones, C. H., and West, E. S.:  High Energy Phosphates in the Muscles of Depressed and Fatigued Patients , West. J. Surg. 60:327, 1952;.
11 +
Eccles, J. C.: The Neurophysiological Basis of Mind: The Principles of Neurophysiology , London, Oxford University Press, 1953;.
12 +
Fisher, R. A.: Statistical Methods for Research Workers , Biological Monographs and Manuals No. 5, New York, Hafner Publishing Co., Inc., 1954;.
13 +
Garmany, G.: Muscle Relaxation as an Aid to Psychotherapy , London, Actinic Press, Ltd., 1953;.
14 +
Haugen, G. B.: A Neurophysiologic Theory of the Neuroses, paper presented at North Pacific Society of Neurology & Psychiatry, April, 1955.
15 +
Haugen, G. B.; Dixon, H. H., and Dickel, H. A.: A Therapy for Anxiety Tension Reactions , New York, The Macmillan Company, 1958;.
16 +
Holmes, T. H., and Wolff, H. G.:  Life Situations, Emotions, and Backache , Psychosom. Med. 14:18, 1952;.
17 +
Jacobson, E.:  Voluntary Relaxation of the Esophagus , Am. J. Physiol. 72:287, 1925;.
18 +
Jacobson, E.:  Response to a Sudden Unexpected Stimulus , J. Exper. Psychol. 9:19, 1926;.
19 +
Jacobson, E.:  Electrical Measurements Concerning Muscular Contraction (Tonus) and the Cultivation of Relaxation in Man: Studies on Arm Flexors , Am. J. Physiol. 107:230, 1934;.
20 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Influence of Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation on Blood Pressure , Am. J. Physiol. 116:86, 1936;.
21 +
Jacobson, E.: Progressive Relaxation , Ed. 2, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1938;.
22 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variation of Blood Pressure with Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation , Ann. Int. Med. 12:1194, 1939;.
23 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variation of Blood Pressure with Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation: II. The Heart Beat , Ann. Int. Med. 13:1619, 1940;.
24 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variations of Blood Pressure with Brief Voluntary Muscular Contractions , J. Lab. & Clin. Med. 25:1029, 1940;.
25 +
Jacobson, E.:  An Integrating Voltmeter for the Study of Nerve and Muscle Potentials , Rev. Scient. Instruments 11:415, 1940;.
26 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Direct Measurement of Nervous and Muscular States with the Integrating Neurovoltmeter (Action-Potential Integrator) , Am. J. Psychiat. 97:513, 1940;.
27 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Physiological Conception and Treatment of Certain Common “Psychoneuroses,” Am. J. Psychiat. 98:219, 1941;.
28 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Effect of Daily Rest Without Training to Relax on Muscular Tonus , Am. J. Psychol. 55:248, 1942;.
29 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Cultivation of Physiological Relaxation , Ann. Int. Med. 19:965, 1943;.
30 +
Jacobson, E.:  Neuromuscular Controls in Man: Methods of Self-Direction in Health and in Disease , Am. J. Psychol. 68:549, 1955;.
31 +
Jacobson, E.: You Must Relax , Ed. 4, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957;.
32 +
Jacobson, E., and Carlson, A. J.:  The Influence of Relaxation upon the Knee Jerk , Am. J. Physiol. 73:324, 1925;.
33 +
Kaufman, W.:  Syndrome of Spontaneous Hypoventilation , Mississippi Valley M. J. 73:1951;
34 +
King, H. E.: Psychomotor Aspects of Mental Disease: An Experimental Study , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1954;.
35 +
Kleitman, N.: Sleep and Wakefulness , Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1939;.
36 +
Kleitman, N.: The Sleep-Wakefulness Cycle, in Problems of Consciousness, edited by H. A. Abramson, Transactions of First Conference, March 20-21, 1950, New York, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, 1950.
37 +
Kraines, S. H.:  The Physiologic Basis of the Manic-Depressive Illness: A Theory , Am. J. Psychiat. 114:206, 1957;.
38 +
Kretschmer, E.: Psychotherapeutische Studien , Stuttgart, Georg Thieme Verlag (American agent, Gruene & Stratton, Inc.), 1949;.
39 +
Kretschmer, E.:  Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy , Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 44:965, 1951;.
40 +
Kretschmer, E.: A Text-Book of Medical Psychology , 2d English Edition, London, Hogarth Press, Ltd., 1952;.
41 +
Lundervold, A. J. S.:  Electromyographic Investigations of Tense and Relaxed Subjects , J. Nerv. & Ment. Dis. 115:512, 1952;.
42 +
MacLean, P. D.:  Psychosomatic Disease and the “Visceral Brain,” Psychosom. Med. 11:338, 1949;.
43 +
MacLean, P. D.:  The Limbic System ("Visceral Brain") in Relation to Central Gray and Reticulum of the Brain Stem , Psychosom. Med. 17:355, 1955;.
44 +
Malmo, R. B., and Shagass, C.:  Physiologic Studies of Reaction to Stress in Anxiety and Early Schizophrenia , Psychosom. Med. 11:9, 1949;.
45 +
Malmo, R. B.; Shagass, C., and Davis, F. H.:  Specificity of Bodily Reactions Under Stress A . Res. Nerv. & Ment. Dis., Proc. (1949) 29:231, 1950;.
46 +
Malmo, R. B.; Shagass, C., and Davis, J. F.:  Electromyographic Studies of Muscular Tension in Psychiatric Patients Under Stress , J. Clin. & Exper. Psychopath. 12:45, 1951;.
47 +
Max, L. W.:  An Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: I. Critique of Earlier Studies , J. Gen. Psychol. 11:112, 1934;.
48 +
Max, L. W.:  Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: III. Action-Current Responses in Deaf-Mutes During Sleep, Sensory Stimulation, and Dreams , J. Comp. Psychol. 19:469, 1935;.
49 +
Max, L. W.:  Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: IV. Action-Current Responses in the Deaf During Awakening, Kinesthetic Imagery, and Abstract Thinking , J. Comp. Psychol. 24:301, 1937;.
50 +
Miller, M.:  Changes in the Response to Electric Shock by Varying Muscular Conditions , J. Exper. Psychol. 9:26, 1926;.
51 +
Neufeld, W.:  Relaxation Methods in U. S. Navy Air Schools , Am. J. Psychiat. 108:132, 1951;.
52 +
Papez, J. W.:  A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 38:725, 1937;.
53 +
Penfield, W.:  Memory Mechanisms , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 67:178, 1952;.
54 +
Penfield, W., and Jasper, H.: Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain , Boston, Little, Brown & Company, 1954;.
55 +
Plutchik, R.:  The Role of Muscular Tension in Maladjustment , J. Gen. Psychol. 50:45, 1954;.
56 +
Roger, A.; Rossi, G. F., and Zirondoli, A.:  Le Rôle des afférences des nerfs craniens dans le maintien de l’état vigile de la préparation “encéphale isolé,” Electroencephalog. & Clin. Neurophysiol. 8:1, 1956;.
57 +
Schwab, R. S., and Prichard, J. S.:  Neurologic Aspects of Fatigue , Neurology 1:133, 1951;.
58 +
Shagass, C., and Malmo, R. B.:  Psychodynamic Themes and Localized Muscular Tension During Psychotherapy , Psychosom. Med. 16:295, 1954;.
59 +
Shaw, W. A.:  The Relation of Muscular Action-Potentials to Imaginal Weight Lifting , Arch. Psychol. 35:5, 1940;.
60 +
Sperry, R. W.:  Neurology and the Mind-Brain Problem , Am. Scientist 40:291, 1952;.
61 +
Totten, E.: Eye Movements During Visual Imagery , Comparative Psychology Monographs, Vol. XI, No. 3, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1935;.
62 +
Vinacke, W. E.: The Psychology of Thinking , New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1952;.
63 +
Weil, A. A.:  Ictal Depression and Anxiety in Temporal Lobe Disorders , Am. J. Psychiat. 113:149, 1956;.
64 +
Whatmore, G. B., and Ellis, R. M., Jr.:  Some Motor Aspects of Schizophrenia: An EMG Study , Am. J. Psychiat. 114:882, 1958;.
65 +
Wolf, S.:  Sustained Contraction of the Diaphragm: The Mechanism of a Common Type of Dyspnea and Precordial Pain , J. Clin. Invest. 26:1201, 1947;.
66 +
Wolpe, J.:  Reciprocal Inhibition as the Main Basis of Psychotherapeutic Effects , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 72:205, 1954;.
67 +
Wolpe, J.: Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition , Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1958;.

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Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Allers, R., and Scheminzky, F.:  Über Aktionssträme der Muskeln bei motorischen Vorstellungen und verwandten Vorgängen , Arch. Physiol. 212:169, 1926;.
2 +
Barlow, W.:  Anxiety and Muscle Tension , in Modern Trends in Psychosomatic Medicine , edited by Desmond O’Neill, New York, Paul B. Hoeber, Inc. (medical book department of Harper & Brothers), 1955;.
3 +
Bender, L.: Psychopathology of Children with Organic Brain Disorders , Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1956;.
4 +
Bremer, F.:  The Neurophysiological Problem of Sleep , in Brain Mechanisms and Consciousness: A Symposium , Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences, edited by J. F. Delafresnaye, Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1954;.
5 +
Bull, N.: The Attitude Theory of Emotion , Monograph No. 81, New York, Nervous & Mental Disease Monographs, 1951;.
6 +
Cobb, S.:  On the Nature and Locus of Mind , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 67:172, 1952;.
7 +
Dement, W.:  Dream Recall and Eye Movements During Sleep in Schizophrenics and Normals , J. Nerv. & Ment. Dis. 122:263, 1955;.
8 +
Dixon, H. H.; Dickel, H. A.; Coen, R. A., and Haugen, G. B.:  Tension States: Summary of Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment , West. J. Surg. 58:667, 1950;.
9 +
Dixon, H. H.; Dickel, H. A.; Shanklin, J. G.; Peterson, R. D., and West, E. S.:  Therapy in Anxiety States and Anxiety Complicated by Depression , West. J. Surg. 62:338, 1954;.
10 +
Dixon, H. H.; Peterson, R. D.; Dickel, H. A.; Jones, C. H., and West, E. S.:  High Energy Phosphates in the Muscles of Depressed and Fatigued Patients , West. J. Surg. 60:327, 1952;.
11 +
Eccles, J. C.: The Neurophysiological Basis of Mind: The Principles of Neurophysiology , London, Oxford University Press, 1953;.
12 +
Fisher, R. A.: Statistical Methods for Research Workers , Biological Monographs and Manuals No. 5, New York, Hafner Publishing Co., Inc., 1954;.
13 +
Garmany, G.: Muscle Relaxation as an Aid to Psychotherapy , London, Actinic Press, Ltd., 1953;.
14 +
Haugen, G. B.: A Neurophysiologic Theory of the Neuroses, paper presented at North Pacific Society of Neurology & Psychiatry, April, 1955.
15 +
Haugen, G. B.; Dixon, H. H., and Dickel, H. A.: A Therapy for Anxiety Tension Reactions , New York, The Macmillan Company, 1958;.
16 +
Holmes, T. H., and Wolff, H. G.:  Life Situations, Emotions, and Backache , Psychosom. Med. 14:18, 1952;.
17 +
Jacobson, E.:  Voluntary Relaxation of the Esophagus , Am. J. Physiol. 72:287, 1925;.
18 +
Jacobson, E.:  Response to a Sudden Unexpected Stimulus , J. Exper. Psychol. 9:19, 1926;.
19 +
Jacobson, E.:  Electrical Measurements Concerning Muscular Contraction (Tonus) and the Cultivation of Relaxation in Man: Studies on Arm Flexors , Am. J. Physiol. 107:230, 1934;.
20 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Influence of Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation on Blood Pressure , Am. J. Physiol. 116:86, 1936;.
21 +
Jacobson, E.: Progressive Relaxation , Ed. 2, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1938;.
22 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variation of Blood Pressure with Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation , Ann. Int. Med. 12:1194, 1939;.
23 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variation of Blood Pressure with Skeletal Muscle Tension and Relaxation: II. The Heart Beat , Ann. Int. Med. 13:1619, 1940;.
24 +
Jacobson, E.:  Variations of Blood Pressure with Brief Voluntary Muscular Contractions , J. Lab. & Clin. Med. 25:1029, 1940;.
25 +
Jacobson, E.:  An Integrating Voltmeter for the Study of Nerve and Muscle Potentials , Rev. Scient. Instruments 11:415, 1940;.
26 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Direct Measurement of Nervous and Muscular States with the Integrating Neurovoltmeter (Action-Potential Integrator) , Am. J. Psychiat. 97:513, 1940;.
27 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Physiological Conception and Treatment of Certain Common “Psychoneuroses,” Am. J. Psychiat. 98:219, 1941;.
28 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Effect of Daily Rest Without Training to Relax on Muscular Tonus , Am. J. Psychol. 55:248, 1942;.
29 +
Jacobson, E.:  The Cultivation of Physiological Relaxation , Ann. Int. Med. 19:965, 1943;.
30 +
Jacobson, E.:  Neuromuscular Controls in Man: Methods of Self-Direction in Health and in Disease , Am. J. Psychol. 68:549, 1955;.
31 +
Jacobson, E.: You Must Relax , Ed. 4, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957;.
32 +
Jacobson, E., and Carlson, A. J.:  The Influence of Relaxation upon the Knee Jerk , Am. J. Physiol. 73:324, 1925;.
33 +
Kaufman, W.:  Syndrome of Spontaneous Hypoventilation , Mississippi Valley M. J. 73:1951;
34 +
King, H. E.: Psychomotor Aspects of Mental Disease: An Experimental Study , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1954;.
35 +
Kleitman, N.: Sleep and Wakefulness , Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1939;.
36 +
Kleitman, N.: The Sleep-Wakefulness Cycle, in Problems of Consciousness, edited by H. A. Abramson, Transactions of First Conference, March 20-21, 1950, New York, Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, 1950.
37 +
Kraines, S. H.:  The Physiologic Basis of the Manic-Depressive Illness: A Theory , Am. J. Psychiat. 114:206, 1957;.
38 +
Kretschmer, E.: Psychotherapeutische Studien , Stuttgart, Georg Thieme Verlag (American agent, Gruene & Stratton, Inc.), 1949;.
39 +
Kretschmer, E.:  Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy , Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 44:965, 1951;.
40 +
Kretschmer, E.: A Text-Book of Medical Psychology , 2d English Edition, London, Hogarth Press, Ltd., 1952;.
41 +
Lundervold, A. J. S.:  Electromyographic Investigations of Tense and Relaxed Subjects , J. Nerv. & Ment. Dis. 115:512, 1952;.
42 +
MacLean, P. D.:  Psychosomatic Disease and the “Visceral Brain,” Psychosom. Med. 11:338, 1949;.
43 +
MacLean, P. D.:  The Limbic System ("Visceral Brain") in Relation to Central Gray and Reticulum of the Brain Stem , Psychosom. Med. 17:355, 1955;.
44 +
Malmo, R. B., and Shagass, C.:  Physiologic Studies of Reaction to Stress in Anxiety and Early Schizophrenia , Psychosom. Med. 11:9, 1949;.
45 +
Malmo, R. B.; Shagass, C., and Davis, F. H.:  Specificity of Bodily Reactions Under Stress A . Res. Nerv. & Ment. Dis., Proc. (1949) 29:231, 1950;.
46 +
Malmo, R. B.; Shagass, C., and Davis, J. F.:  Electromyographic Studies of Muscular Tension in Psychiatric Patients Under Stress , J. Clin. & Exper. Psychopath. 12:45, 1951;.
47 +
Max, L. W.:  An Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: I. Critique of Earlier Studies , J. Gen. Psychol. 11:112, 1934;.
48 +
Max, L. W.:  Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: III. Action-Current Responses in Deaf-Mutes During Sleep, Sensory Stimulation, and Dreams , J. Comp. Psychol. 19:469, 1935;.
49 +
Max, L. W.:  Experimental Study of the Motor Theory of Consciousness: IV. Action-Current Responses in the Deaf During Awakening, Kinesthetic Imagery, and Abstract Thinking , J. Comp. Psychol. 24:301, 1937;.
50 +
Miller, M.:  Changes in the Response to Electric Shock by Varying Muscular Conditions , J. Exper. Psychol. 9:26, 1926;.
51 +
Neufeld, W.:  Relaxation Methods in U. S. Navy Air Schools , Am. J. Psychiat. 108:132, 1951;.
52 +
Papez, J. W.:  A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 38:725, 1937;.
53 +
Penfield, W.:  Memory Mechanisms , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 67:178, 1952;.
54 +
Penfield, W., and Jasper, H.: Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain , Boston, Little, Brown & Company, 1954;.
55 +
Plutchik, R.:  The Role of Muscular Tension in Maladjustment , J. Gen. Psychol. 50:45, 1954;.
56 +
Roger, A.; Rossi, G. F., and Zirondoli, A.:  Le Rôle des afférences des nerfs craniens dans le maintien de l’état vigile de la préparation “encéphale isolé,” Electroencephalog. & Clin. Neurophysiol. 8:1, 1956;.
57 +
Schwab, R. S., and Prichard, J. S.:  Neurologic Aspects of Fatigue , Neurology 1:133, 1951;.
58 +
Shagass, C., and Malmo, R. B.:  Psychodynamic Themes and Localized Muscular Tension During Psychotherapy , Psychosom. Med. 16:295, 1954;.
59 +
Shaw, W. A.:  The Relation of Muscular Action-Potentials to Imaginal Weight Lifting , Arch. Psychol. 35:5, 1940;.
60 +
Sperry, R. W.:  Neurology and the Mind-Brain Problem , Am. Scientist 40:291, 1952;.
61 +
Totten, E.: Eye Movements During Visual Imagery , Comparative Psychology Monographs, Vol. XI, No. 3, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1935;.
62 +
Vinacke, W. E.: The Psychology of Thinking , New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1952;.
63 +
Weil, A. A.:  Ictal Depression and Anxiety in Temporal Lobe Disorders , Am. J. Psychiat. 113:149, 1956;.
64 +
Whatmore, G. B., and Ellis, R. M., Jr.:  Some Motor Aspects of Schizophrenia: An EMG Study , Am. J. Psychiat. 114:882, 1958;.
65 +
Wolf, S.:  Sustained Contraction of the Diaphragm: The Mechanism of a Common Type of Dyspnea and Precordial Pain , J. Clin. Invest. 26:1201, 1947;.
66 +
Wolpe, J.:  Reciprocal Inhibition as the Main Basis of Psychotherapeutic Effects , A. M. A. Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 72:205, 1954;.
67 +
Wolpe, J.: Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition , Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1958;.

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