0
June 1987, Vol 44, No. 6 >
Article | June 1987

A Systematic Method for Clinical Description and Classification of Personality Variants: Title and subTitle BreakA Proposal

C. Robert Cloninger, MD
[+] Author Affiliations

Accepted for publication Dec 5, 1986.

Reprint requests to The Jewish Hospital of St Louis, 216 S Kingshighway Blvd, PO Box 14109, St Louis, MO 63178 (Dr Cloninger).


Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44(6):573-588. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800180093014
Text Size: A A A
Published online
Article
References
Comments

• A systematic method for clinical description and classification of both normal and abnormal personality variants is proposed based on a general biosocial theory of personality. Three dimensions of personality are defined in terms of the basic stimulus-response characteristics of novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence. The possible underlying genetic and neuroanatomical bases of observed variation in these dimensions are reviewed and considered in relation to adaptive responses to environmental challenge. The functional interaction of these dimensions leads to integrated patterns of differential response to novelty, punishment, and reward. The possible tridimensional combinations of extreme (high or low) variants on these basic stimulusresponse characteristics correspond closely to traditional descriptions of personality disorders. This reconciles dimensional and categorical approaches to personality description. It also implies that the underlying structure of normal adaptive traits is the same as that of maladaptive personality traits, except for schizotypal and paranoid disorders.

REFERENCES

1 +
American Psychiatric Association Task Force on Nomenclature and Statistics: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , ed 3. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1980;.
2 +
World Health Organization:  Classification of mental disorders , in Manual of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death (ICD 9) . Geneva, World Health Organization, 1977;, vol 1.
3 +
Frances A:  The DSM-III personality disorders section: A commentary . Am J Psychiatry 1980;;137:1050-1054.
4 +
Millon T: Disorders of Personality, DSM-III: Axis II . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1981;.
5 +
Widiger TA, Frances A:  The DSM-III personality disorders: perspectives from psychology . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;;42:615-623.
6 +
Caplan PJ, Miller JB: Self-defeating and sadistic personality disorders: Needed additions to DSM-III-R? Presented at the 139th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, May 12, 1986.
7 +
Frances A:  Categorical and dimensional systems of personality diagnosis: A comparison . Compr Psychiatry 1982;;23:516-527.
8 +
Eysenck HJ, Eysenck SB: Manual of the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Inventory) . San Diego, Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1976;.
9 +
Tellegen A:  Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report , in Tuma AH, Maser J: Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders . Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc Inc, 1985;, pp 681-706.
10 +
Barrett JE Jr:  Use of the M-N-T Inventory (Sjöbring personality dimensions) on an American population . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1972;;48:501-509.
11 +
Essen-Möller E, Larsson H, Uddenberg CE, White G:  Individual traits and morbidity in a Swedish rural population . Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1956;;100:1-160.
12 +
Hagnell O: A Prospective Study of the Incidence of Mental Disorder . Stockholm, Scandinavian University Books, Svenska Bokförlaget/Norstedts-Bonniers, 1966;.
13 +
Kendell R:  The choice of diagnostic criteria for biological research . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1334-1339.
14 +
Cloninger CR, Martin RL, Guze SB, Clayton PJ:  Diagnosis and prognosis in schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;;40:15-25.
15 +
Flynn PM, McMahon RC:  An examination of the factor structure of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory . J Pers Assess 1984;;48:308-311.
16 +
Gray JA: The Neuropsychology of Anxiety . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1982;.
17 +
Gray JA:  Anxiety, personality and the brain , in Gale A, Edwards JA (eds): Physiological Correlates of Human Behavior: III. Individual Differences and Psychopathology . Orlando, Fla, Academic Press Inc, 1983;, pp 31-43.
18 +
Eaves L, Eysenck HJ:  The nature of extraversion: A genetical analysis . J Pers Soc Psychol 1975;;32:102-112.
19 +
Fulker DW:  The genetic and environmental architecture of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism , in Eysenck HJ (ed): A Model for Personality . New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1981;, pp 88-122.
20 +
Loehlin JC:  Are personality traits differentially heritable? Behav Genet 1982;;12:417-428.
21 +
Allport GW: Personality: A Psychological Interpretation . New York, Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1937;.
22 +
Thorpe WH: Learning and Instinct in Animals . Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1956;.
23 +
Cloninger CR, Gilligan SB:  Neurogenetic mechanisms of learning: A phylogenetic perspective . J Psychiatr Res , in press.
24 +
Cloninger CR:  A unified biosocial theory of personality and its role in the development of anxiety states . Psychiatr Dev 1986;;3:167-226.
25 +
Stellar JR, Stellar E: The Neurobiology of Motivation and Reward . New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1985;.
26 +
Thompson RF:  The neurobiology of learning and memory . Science 1986;;233:941-947.
27 +
Goelet P, Castellucci VF, Schacher S, Kandel ER:  The long and the short of long-term memory: A molecular framework . Nature 1986;;322:419-422.
28 +
Wise RA:  Action of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1980;;13:213-223.
29 +
Routtenberg A:  The reward system of the brain . Sci Am 1978;;239:154-164.
30 +
Fowles DC:  The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity and psychopathy . Psychophysiology 1980;;17:87-104.
31 +
Obrist TA:  The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction—as it appears today . Psychophysiology 1976;;13:95-107.
32 +
Moore RY, Bloom FE:  Central catecholamine neuron systems: Anatomy and physiology of the dopamine systems . Ann Rev Neurosci 1978;;1:129-169.
33 +
Heath RG (ed): The Role of Pleasure in Behavior . New York, Harper & Row Publishers Inc, 1964;.
34 +
Kelley A, Stinus L:  Neuroanatomical and neurochemical substrates of affective behavior , in Fox NA, Davidson RJ (eds): Affective Development: A Psychobiological Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc Inc, pp 1-75.
35 +
Iversen SD:  Brain dopamine systems and behavior , in Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Snyder SH (eds): Handbook of Psychopharmacology . New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1977;, vol 8, pp 333-374.
36 +
Cloninger CR: Personality and Psychopathology: A Unified Biosocial Theory. New York, Oxford University Press Inc, in press.
37 +
Warburton DM:  Stimulus selection and behavioral inhibition , in Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Snyder SH (eds): Handbook of Psychopharmacology , New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1977;, vol 8, pp 385-432.
38 +
Thiebot M-H, Hamon M, Soubrie P:  Serotonergic neurones and anxiety-related behavior in rats , in Trimble MR, Zarifian E (eds): Psychopharmacology of the Limbic System . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1984;, pp 164-174.
39 +
Huppert FA, Iversen SD:  Response suppression in rats: A comparison of response contingent and non-contingent punishment and the effect of the minor tranquilizer, chlordiazepoxide . Psychopharmacologia 1975;;44:67-75.
40 +
Stein L:  Behavioral pharmacology of benzodiazepines , in Klein DF, Rabkin J (eds): Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts . New York, Raven Press, 1981;, pp 201-214.
41 +
Sepinwall J, Cook L:  Mechanism of action of the benzodiazepines: Behavioral aspects . Fed Proc 1980;;39:3021-3031.
42 +
Frith CD, Dowdy J, Ferrier IN, Crow TJ:  Selective impairment of paired associate learning after administration of a centrally-acting adrenergic agonist (clonidine) . Psychopharmacology 1985;;87:490-493.
43 +
Moore RY, Bloom FE:  Central catecholamine neuron systems: Anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems . Ann Rev Neurosci 1979;;2:113-168.
44 +
Angevine JB Jr, Cotman CW: Principles of Neuroanatomy . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1981;.
45 +
Segal M, Bloom FE:  The action of norepinephrine in the rat hippocampus: IV. The effects of locus coeruleus stimulation on evoked hippocampal unit activity . Brain Res 1976;;107:513-525.
46 +
Mason ST, Iversen ST:  Theories of the dorsal bundle extinction effect . Brain Res Rev 1979;;1:107-137.
47 +
McEntee WJ, Mair RG, Langlais PJ:  Neurochemical pathology in Korsakoff's psychosis: Implications for other cognitive disorders . Neurology 1984;;31:648-652.
48 +
Mair RG, McEntee WJ:  Cognitive enhancement in Korsakoff's psychosis by clonidine: A comparison with L-dopa and ephedrine . Psychopharmacology 1986;;88:274-280.
49 +
Mair RG, Langlais PJ, Mazurek MF, Beal MF, Martin JB, McEntee WJ:  Reduced concentrations of arginine vasopressin and MHPG in lumbar CSF of patients with Korsakoff's psychosis . Life Sci , in press.
50 +
DeWeid D, Bohus B:  Modulation of memory processes by neuropeptides of hypothalamic neurohypophyseal origin , in Brazier MAB (ed): Brain Mechanisms in Memory and Learning: From the Single Neuron to Man . New York, Raven Press, 1979;, pp 139-149.
51 +
Kovacs GL, Bohus B, Versteeg DHG:  Facilitation of memory consolidation by vasopressin: Mediation by terminals of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle? Brain Res 1979;;172:73-85.
52 +
Crow TJ, Deakin JFW:  Neurohumoral transmission, behavior, and mental disorder , in Handbook of Psychiatry . New York, Cambridge University Press, 1985;, vol 5, Shepherd M (ed): The Scientific Foundations of Psychiatry, pp 137-182.
53 +
Spielberger CD, Kling JK, O'Hagan SEJ:  Dimensions of psychopathic personality: Antisocial behavior and anxiety , in Hare RD, Schalling D (eds): Psychopathic Behavior: Approaches to Research . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1978;, pp 23-46.
54 +
Pollak JM:  Obsessive-compulsive personality: A review . Psychol Bull 1979;;86:225-241.
55 +
Sjöbring H:  Personality structure and development: A model and its application . Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1973;;244:1-204.
56 +
Cleckley H: The Mask of Sanity , ed 5. St Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1976;.
57 +
Schalling D:  Psychopathy-related personality variables and the psychophysiology of socialization , in Hare RD, Schalling D (eds): Psychopathic Behavior: Approaches to Research . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1978;, pp 85-106.
58 +
Robins LN: Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality . Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1966;.
59 +
Cloninger CR:  The link between hysteria and sociopathy , in Akiskal HS, Webb WL (eds): Psychiatric Diagnosis: Exploration of Biological Predictors . New York, Spectrum Inc, 1978;, pp 189-218.
60 +
Horowitz MJ: Hysterical Personality . New York, Jason Aronson Inc, 1977;.
61 +
Bohman M, Cloninger CR, von Knorring AL, Sigvardsson S:  An adoption study of somatoform disorders: III. Cross-fostering analysis and genetic relationship to alcoholism and criminality . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;;41:872-878.
62 +
Small IF, Small JG, Alig VB, Moore DF:  Passive-aggressive personality disorder: A search for a syndrome . Am J Psychiatry 1970;;126:973-983.
63 +
Dahl A:  A critical examination of empirical studies of the diagnosis of borderline disorders in adults . Psychiatr Dev 1985;;3:1-29.
64 +
Torgersen S:  Genetic and nosological aspects of schizotypal and borderline personality disorders: A twin study . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;;41:546-554.
65 +
Berner W, Karlick-Bolten E:  DSM-III-Personlichkeitsdiagnostik bei einer Gruppe chronischer Straftater . Wien Klin Wochenschr 1985;;97:555-561.
66 +
Perry JC, Flannery RB:  Passive-aggressive personality disorder: Treatment implications of a clinical typology . J Nerv Ment Dis 1982;;170:164-173.
67 +
Reed GF:  Obsessional personality disorder and remembering . Br J Psychiatry 1977;;130:177-183.
68 +
Volans PJ:  Styles of decision-making and probability appraisal in selected obsessional and phobic patients . Br J Soc Clin Psychol 1976;;15:305-317.
69 +
Gottheil E, Stone GC:  Factor analytic study of orality and anality . J Nerv Ment Dis 1968;;146:1-17.
70 +
Tyrer P, Casey P, Gall J:  Relationship between neurosis and personality disorder . Br J Psychiatry 1983;;142:404-408.
71 +
Shapiro D: Neurotic Styles . New York, Basic Books Inc Publishers, 1965;.
72 +
Kretschmer E: Physique and Character , ed 2. New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanich Publishers, 1925;.
73 +
Wetzel RD, Cloninger CR, Hong B, Reich T:  Personality as a subclinical expression of affective disorder . Compr Psychiat 1980;;21:197-205.
74 +
Depue RA, Slater JF, Wolfstetter-Kausch H, Klein D, Gopleurd E, Farr D:  A behavioral paradigm for identifying persons at risk for bipolar depressive disorders: A conceptual frame work and five validation studies . J Abnorm Psychology 1981;;90:381-437.
75 +
Cloninger CR, Martin RL, Guze SB, Clayton PJ:  A blind follow-up and family study of anxiety neurosis: Preliminary analysis of the St Louis 500 , in Klein DF, Rabkin J (eds): Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts . New York, Raven Press, 1981;, pp 137-150.
76 +
Noyes R Jr, Clancy J, Hoenk PR, Slymen DJ:  The prognosis of anxiety neurosis . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;;37:173-178.
77 +
Bohman M, Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: I. Genetic and environmental heterogeneity . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1233-1241.
78 +
Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1242-1247.
79 +
Sigvardsson S, Cloninger CR, Bohman M, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: III. Sex differences and validation of the male typology . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1248-1253.
80 +
Cloninger CR:  Somatoform and dissociative disorders , in Winokur G, Clayton PJ (eds): Medical Basis of Psychiatry . Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1986;, pp 123-151.
81 +
Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Bohman M:  Childhood personality predicts alcohol abuse in young adults . Alcoholism , in press.
82 +
Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, Cloninger CR:  Structure and stability of childhood personality: Prediction of later social adjustment . J Child Psychol Psychiatry , in press.
83 +
Cloninger CR:  Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms, in alcoholism . Science , in press.

First Page Preview

First page PDF preview

Figures

Tables

Interactive Graphics

Video

Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
American Psychiatric Association Task Force on Nomenclature and Statistics: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , ed 3. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1980;.
2 +
World Health Organization:  Classification of mental disorders , in Manual of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death (ICD 9) . Geneva, World Health Organization, 1977;, vol 1.
3 +
Frances A:  The DSM-III personality disorders section: A commentary . Am J Psychiatry 1980;;137:1050-1054.
4 +
Millon T: Disorders of Personality, DSM-III: Axis II . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1981;.
5 +
Widiger TA, Frances A:  The DSM-III personality disorders: perspectives from psychology . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;;42:615-623.
6 +
Caplan PJ, Miller JB: Self-defeating and sadistic personality disorders: Needed additions to DSM-III-R? Presented at the 139th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, May 12, 1986.
7 +
Frances A:  Categorical and dimensional systems of personality diagnosis: A comparison . Compr Psychiatry 1982;;23:516-527.
8 +
Eysenck HJ, Eysenck SB: Manual of the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Inventory) . San Diego, Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1976;.
9 +
Tellegen A:  Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report , in Tuma AH, Maser J: Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders . Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc Inc, 1985;, pp 681-706.
10 +
Barrett JE Jr:  Use of the M-N-T Inventory (Sjöbring personality dimensions) on an American population . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1972;;48:501-509.
11 +
Essen-Möller E, Larsson H, Uddenberg CE, White G:  Individual traits and morbidity in a Swedish rural population . Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1956;;100:1-160.
12 +
Hagnell O: A Prospective Study of the Incidence of Mental Disorder . Stockholm, Scandinavian University Books, Svenska Bokförlaget/Norstedts-Bonniers, 1966;.
13 +
Kendell R:  The choice of diagnostic criteria for biological research . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1334-1339.
14 +
Cloninger CR, Martin RL, Guze SB, Clayton PJ:  Diagnosis and prognosis in schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;;40:15-25.
15 +
Flynn PM, McMahon RC:  An examination of the factor structure of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory . J Pers Assess 1984;;48:308-311.
16 +
Gray JA: The Neuropsychology of Anxiety . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1982;.
17 +
Gray JA:  Anxiety, personality and the brain , in Gale A, Edwards JA (eds): Physiological Correlates of Human Behavior: III. Individual Differences and Psychopathology . Orlando, Fla, Academic Press Inc, 1983;, pp 31-43.
18 +
Eaves L, Eysenck HJ:  The nature of extraversion: A genetical analysis . J Pers Soc Psychol 1975;;32:102-112.
19 +
Fulker DW:  The genetic and environmental architecture of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism , in Eysenck HJ (ed): A Model for Personality . New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1981;, pp 88-122.
20 +
Loehlin JC:  Are personality traits differentially heritable? Behav Genet 1982;;12:417-428.
21 +
Allport GW: Personality: A Psychological Interpretation . New York, Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1937;.
22 +
Thorpe WH: Learning and Instinct in Animals . Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1956;.
23 +
Cloninger CR, Gilligan SB:  Neurogenetic mechanisms of learning: A phylogenetic perspective . J Psychiatr Res , in press.
24 +
Cloninger CR:  A unified biosocial theory of personality and its role in the development of anxiety states . Psychiatr Dev 1986;;3:167-226.
25 +
Stellar JR, Stellar E: The Neurobiology of Motivation and Reward . New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1985;.
26 +
Thompson RF:  The neurobiology of learning and memory . Science 1986;;233:941-947.
27 +
Goelet P, Castellucci VF, Schacher S, Kandel ER:  The long and the short of long-term memory: A molecular framework . Nature 1986;;322:419-422.
28 +
Wise RA:  Action of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1980;;13:213-223.
29 +
Routtenberg A:  The reward system of the brain . Sci Am 1978;;239:154-164.
30 +
Fowles DC:  The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity and psychopathy . Psychophysiology 1980;;17:87-104.
31 +
Obrist TA:  The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction—as it appears today . Psychophysiology 1976;;13:95-107.
32 +
Moore RY, Bloom FE:  Central catecholamine neuron systems: Anatomy and physiology of the dopamine systems . Ann Rev Neurosci 1978;;1:129-169.
33 +
Heath RG (ed): The Role of Pleasure in Behavior . New York, Harper & Row Publishers Inc, 1964;.
34 +
Kelley A, Stinus L:  Neuroanatomical and neurochemical substrates of affective behavior , in Fox NA, Davidson RJ (eds): Affective Development: A Psychobiological Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc Inc, pp 1-75.
35 +
Iversen SD:  Brain dopamine systems and behavior , in Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Snyder SH (eds): Handbook of Psychopharmacology . New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1977;, vol 8, pp 333-374.
36 +
Cloninger CR: Personality and Psychopathology: A Unified Biosocial Theory. New York, Oxford University Press Inc, in press.
37 +
Warburton DM:  Stimulus selection and behavioral inhibition , in Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Snyder SH (eds): Handbook of Psychopharmacology , New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1977;, vol 8, pp 385-432.
38 +
Thiebot M-H, Hamon M, Soubrie P:  Serotonergic neurones and anxiety-related behavior in rats , in Trimble MR, Zarifian E (eds): Psychopharmacology of the Limbic System . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1984;, pp 164-174.
39 +
Huppert FA, Iversen SD:  Response suppression in rats: A comparison of response contingent and non-contingent punishment and the effect of the minor tranquilizer, chlordiazepoxide . Psychopharmacologia 1975;;44:67-75.
40 +
Stein L:  Behavioral pharmacology of benzodiazepines , in Klein DF, Rabkin J (eds): Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts . New York, Raven Press, 1981;, pp 201-214.
41 +
Sepinwall J, Cook L:  Mechanism of action of the benzodiazepines: Behavioral aspects . Fed Proc 1980;;39:3021-3031.
42 +
Frith CD, Dowdy J, Ferrier IN, Crow TJ:  Selective impairment of paired associate learning after administration of a centrally-acting adrenergic agonist (clonidine) . Psychopharmacology 1985;;87:490-493.
43 +
Moore RY, Bloom FE:  Central catecholamine neuron systems: Anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems . Ann Rev Neurosci 1979;;2:113-168.
44 +
Angevine JB Jr, Cotman CW: Principles of Neuroanatomy . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1981;.
45 +
Segal M, Bloom FE:  The action of norepinephrine in the rat hippocampus: IV. The effects of locus coeruleus stimulation on evoked hippocampal unit activity . Brain Res 1976;;107:513-525.
46 +
Mason ST, Iversen ST:  Theories of the dorsal bundle extinction effect . Brain Res Rev 1979;;1:107-137.
47 +
McEntee WJ, Mair RG, Langlais PJ:  Neurochemical pathology in Korsakoff's psychosis: Implications for other cognitive disorders . Neurology 1984;;31:648-652.
48 +
Mair RG, McEntee WJ:  Cognitive enhancement in Korsakoff's psychosis by clonidine: A comparison with L-dopa and ephedrine . Psychopharmacology 1986;;88:274-280.
49 +
Mair RG, Langlais PJ, Mazurek MF, Beal MF, Martin JB, McEntee WJ:  Reduced concentrations of arginine vasopressin and MHPG in lumbar CSF of patients with Korsakoff's psychosis . Life Sci , in press.
50 +
DeWeid D, Bohus B:  Modulation of memory processes by neuropeptides of hypothalamic neurohypophyseal origin , in Brazier MAB (ed): Brain Mechanisms in Memory and Learning: From the Single Neuron to Man . New York, Raven Press, 1979;, pp 139-149.
51 +
Kovacs GL, Bohus B, Versteeg DHG:  Facilitation of memory consolidation by vasopressin: Mediation by terminals of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle? Brain Res 1979;;172:73-85.
52 +
Crow TJ, Deakin JFW:  Neurohumoral transmission, behavior, and mental disorder , in Handbook of Psychiatry . New York, Cambridge University Press, 1985;, vol 5, Shepherd M (ed): The Scientific Foundations of Psychiatry, pp 137-182.
53 +
Spielberger CD, Kling JK, O'Hagan SEJ:  Dimensions of psychopathic personality: Antisocial behavior and anxiety , in Hare RD, Schalling D (eds): Psychopathic Behavior: Approaches to Research . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1978;, pp 23-46.
54 +
Pollak JM:  Obsessive-compulsive personality: A review . Psychol Bull 1979;;86:225-241.
55 +
Sjöbring H:  Personality structure and development: A model and its application . Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1973;;244:1-204.
56 +
Cleckley H: The Mask of Sanity , ed 5. St Louis, CV Mosby Co, 1976;.
57 +
Schalling D:  Psychopathy-related personality variables and the psychophysiology of socialization , in Hare RD, Schalling D (eds): Psychopathic Behavior: Approaches to Research . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1978;, pp 85-106.
58 +
Robins LN: Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality . Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1966;.
59 +
Cloninger CR:  The link between hysteria and sociopathy , in Akiskal HS, Webb WL (eds): Psychiatric Diagnosis: Exploration of Biological Predictors . New York, Spectrum Inc, 1978;, pp 189-218.
60 +
Horowitz MJ: Hysterical Personality . New York, Jason Aronson Inc, 1977;.
61 +
Bohman M, Cloninger CR, von Knorring AL, Sigvardsson S:  An adoption study of somatoform disorders: III. Cross-fostering analysis and genetic relationship to alcoholism and criminality . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;;41:872-878.
62 +
Small IF, Small JG, Alig VB, Moore DF:  Passive-aggressive personality disorder: A search for a syndrome . Am J Psychiatry 1970;;126:973-983.
63 +
Dahl A:  A critical examination of empirical studies of the diagnosis of borderline disorders in adults . Psychiatr Dev 1985;;3:1-29.
64 +
Torgersen S:  Genetic and nosological aspects of schizotypal and borderline personality disorders: A twin study . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;;41:546-554.
65 +
Berner W, Karlick-Bolten E:  DSM-III-Personlichkeitsdiagnostik bei einer Gruppe chronischer Straftater . Wien Klin Wochenschr 1985;;97:555-561.
66 +
Perry JC, Flannery RB:  Passive-aggressive personality disorder: Treatment implications of a clinical typology . J Nerv Ment Dis 1982;;170:164-173.
67 +
Reed GF:  Obsessional personality disorder and remembering . Br J Psychiatry 1977;;130:177-183.
68 +
Volans PJ:  Styles of decision-making and probability appraisal in selected obsessional and phobic patients . Br J Soc Clin Psychol 1976;;15:305-317.
69 +
Gottheil E, Stone GC:  Factor analytic study of orality and anality . J Nerv Ment Dis 1968;;146:1-17.
70 +
Tyrer P, Casey P, Gall J:  Relationship between neurosis and personality disorder . Br J Psychiatry 1983;;142:404-408.
71 +
Shapiro D: Neurotic Styles . New York, Basic Books Inc Publishers, 1965;.
72 +
Kretschmer E: Physique and Character , ed 2. New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanich Publishers, 1925;.
73 +
Wetzel RD, Cloninger CR, Hong B, Reich T:  Personality as a subclinical expression of affective disorder . Compr Psychiat 1980;;21:197-205.
74 +
Depue RA, Slater JF, Wolfstetter-Kausch H, Klein D, Gopleurd E, Farr D:  A behavioral paradigm for identifying persons at risk for bipolar depressive disorders: A conceptual frame work and five validation studies . J Abnorm Psychology 1981;;90:381-437.
75 +
Cloninger CR, Martin RL, Guze SB, Clayton PJ:  A blind follow-up and family study of anxiety neurosis: Preliminary analysis of the St Louis 500 , in Klein DF, Rabkin J (eds): Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts . New York, Raven Press, 1981;, pp 137-150.
76 +
Noyes R Jr, Clancy J, Hoenk PR, Slymen DJ:  The prognosis of anxiety neurosis . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;;37:173-178.
77 +
Bohman M, Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: I. Genetic and environmental heterogeneity . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1233-1241.
78 +
Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1242-1247.
79 +
Sigvardsson S, Cloninger CR, Bohman M, von Knorring A-L:  Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: III. Sex differences and validation of the male typology . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;;39:1248-1253.
80 +
Cloninger CR:  Somatoform and dissociative disorders , in Winokur G, Clayton PJ (eds): Medical Basis of Psychiatry . Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1986;, pp 123-151.
81 +
Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Bohman M:  Childhood personality predicts alcohol abuse in young adults . Alcoholism , in press.
82 +
Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, Cloninger CR:  Structure and stability of childhood personality: Prediction of later social adjustment . J Child Psychol Psychiatry , in press.
83 +
Cloninger CR:  Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms, in alcoholism . Science , in press.

Correspondence

Submit a Letter
CME Course for:


You need to register in order to view this quiz.


To understand the clinical management of acute heart failure syndromes.
Accreditation Information The American Medical Association is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education to provide continuing medical education for physicians.
The AMA designates this journal-based CME activity for a maximum of 1 AMA PRA Category 1 CreditTM per course. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.
Physicians who complete the CME course and score at least 80% correct on the quiz are eligible for AMA PRA Category 1 CreditTM.
Note: You must get at least of the answers correct to pass this quiz.
Note: You must get at least of the answers correct to pass this quiz.
You have not filled in all the answers to complete this quiz
The following questions were not answered:
Sorry, you have unsuccessfully completed this CME quiz with a score of
The following questions were not answered correctly:
For CME Course: A Proposed Model for Initial Assessment and Management of Acute Heart Failure Syndromes
Indicate what changes(s) you will implement in your practice, if any, based on this CME course.
To view and print your certificate and access a summary of your CME courses go to My CME.
NOTE:
Citing articles are presented as examples only. In non-demo SCM6 implementation, integration with CrossRef’s “Cited By” API will populate this tab (http://www.crossref.org/citedby.html).
Compression-Only CPR: Pushing the Science Forward
Cone
AAM 2010;304:1493-1495.
All you need to read in the other general journals
BMJ 2010;341:c5893-c1494.
Submit a Comment

Some tools below are only available to our subscribers or users with an online account.

Related Content

Customize your page view by dragging & repositioning the boxes below.

© 2012 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
Powered bySilverchair Information Systems